History of Religion55 traditions · 182 developments

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An interactive timeline of the history of religion: 55 traditions · 182 developments, from Prehistoric & Ancient to Early Modern & Modern, with the connections between them.

Prehistoric & Ancient

Early Burial Practices (c. 120,000–30,000 years ago)

Intentional burials, sometimes with grave goods, are among the earliest archaeological traces that scholars link to symbolic or religious behaviour. Their meaning is debated, but they suggest care for the dead and possibly beliefs about death and an afterlife.

Göbekli Tepe (c. 9500–8000 BCE)

In southeastern Turkey, hunter-gatherers raised monumental stone enclosures with carved T-shaped pillars from around 9500 BCE. The site is often cited as evidence that communal ritual gatherings may have preceded, or accompanied, the rise of farming.

Mesopotamian Religion (c. 3500–500 BCE)

Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian cities honoured patron deities in temples that were also major economic institutions. Their myths, preserved on clay tablets, include some of the oldest surviving religious literature.

Ancient Egyptian Religion (c. 3100 BCE – 4th c. CE)

Egyptian religion combined many gods, a divinely sanctioned kingship and an elaborate concern with the afterlife. Funerary texts evolved from royal pyramid inscriptions to spells available to wider society.

Vedic Religion (c. 1500–500 BCE)

The religion of Indo-Aryan-speaking peoples of northern India centred on hymns and fire sacrifices performed by hereditary priests. Its texts, the Vedas, remain foundational scripture for Hindus.

Akhenaten’s Atenism (c. 1353–1336 BCE)

Pharaoh Akhenaten elevated the sun disc, the Aten, above Egypt’s traditional gods in a short-lived religious revolution. Scholars debate whether Atenism was true monotheism and whether it influenced later traditions.

Zoroastrianism (c. 1500–500 BCE (disputed))

Zoroastrianism traces itself to the prophet Zarathustra, whose dates scholars place anywhere from about 1500 to 500 BCE. Its themes of cosmic struggle between good and evil, judgement and renewal are widely discussed for their possible influence on later religions.

Israelite Religion (c. 1200–587 BCE)

The religion of ancient Israel and Judah centred on the god Yahweh. Scholars generally see a gradual development from the worship of several deities toward the exclusive monotheism later expressed in the Hebrew Bible.

Greek Religion (c. 800 BCE – 4th c. CE)

Greek religion had no single scripture or church: city-states honoured the Olympian gods with sacrifice, festivals and games, while oracles and mystery cults offered guidance and personal hope.

The Upanishads (c. 700–300 BCE)

The Upanishads turned from external sacrifice toward inner knowledge, exploring the self, ultimate reality and liberation. Their ideas underlie much later Hindu philosophy.

Second Temple Judaism (538 BCE – 70 CE)

After the Babylonian exile, Judeans rebuilt the Jerusalem Temple under Persian rule. Over the following centuries the Torah took final shape and diverse Jewish groups and texts flourished.

Confucius (551–479 BCE)

Confucius taught moral cultivation through ritual, learning and right relationships. Whether Confucianism is a religion is debated, but its ancestral rites and ethics shaped religious life across East Asia.

Mahavira & Jainism (c. 6th–5th century BCE)

Jains regard Mahavira as the 24th and last tīrthaṅkara (ford-maker) of the present age, reviving an older ascetic path. Jainism emphasises non-violence and self-discipline as the way to free the soul from karma.

The Buddha (c. 5th century BCE)

Siddhārtha Gautama, known as the Buddha (“awakened one”), taught a path to liberation from suffering. Scholars increasingly date his death to around 400 BCE rather than the traditional 483 BCE.

Laozi & Daoism (c. 4th century BCE onward)

The Daodejing, attributed to the semi-legendary Laozi, describes the Dao as the ineffable source of all things. Philosophical Daoism later fed into organised Daoist religion with priests, rituals and scriptures.

Ashoka’s Dhamma (c. 268–232 BCE)

The Mauryan emperor Ashoka embraced Buddhism and proclaimed a policy of dhamma, moral governance and tolerance, in edicts carved across his realm. His patronage helped carry Buddhism beyond India.

Roman Religion & Imperial Cult (c. 1st c. BCE – 4th c. CE)

Roman public religion sought the goodwill of the gods through correctly performed ritual. Under the empire the cult of the emperors became a marker of loyalty, while mystery cults offered personal devotion.

Jesus of Nazareth (c. 4 BCE – c. 30/33 CE)

Jesus was a Galilean Jewish teacher whose followers came to proclaim him the Messiah. Most historians accept that he was baptised by John and crucified under Pontius Pilate; Christians believe he rose from the dead.

Paul the Apostle (c. 5 – c. 64/65 CE)

Paul, a Pharisee who had opposed the early Jesus movement, became its most influential missionary to non-Jews. His letters are the oldest surviving Christian writings.

Rabbinic Judaism (70 – c. 600 CE)

After Rome destroyed the Second Temple, rabbinic sages reorganised Jewish life around study, prayer and the interpretation of law. Their oral tradition was written down in the Mishnah and Talmuds.

Mahāyāna Buddhism (c. 1st c. BCE – 3rd c. CE)

Mahāyāna (“Great Vehicle”) Buddhism produced new scriptures and celebrated the bodhisattva who seeks awakening for all beings. It became the dominant form of Buddhism in East Asia.

Bhagavad Gita & Classical Hinduism (c. 2nd c. BCE – 6th c. CE)

The Bhagavad Gita, part of the Mahabharata epic, synthesised duty, knowledge and devotion. In the following centuries temple worship of Vishnu, Shiva and the Goddess grew into the forms of Hinduism familiar today.

Mesoamerican Religion (c. 1st – 16th century CE)

Peoples of Mesoamerica built monumental ceremonial centres and shared ritual calendars, cosmologies and deities such as the Feathered Serpent. Their religions were deeply tied to kingship, agriculture and time.

Constantine & the Christian Empire (313–392)

Constantine’s support transformed Christianity from a persecuted minority into an imperially favoured church. By the end of the 4th century Nicene Christianity was the state religion and public pagan sacrifice was banned.

Nicaea & the Ecumenical Councils (325–451)

Church-wide councils defined Christian doctrine about the Trinity and the nature of Christ. Their creeds became standards of orthodoxy, but also produced lasting divisions.

Christian Monasticism (c. 270–560)

Christian ascetics withdrew to the Egyptian desert in pursuit of prayer and holiness, and communal monasteries soon followed. Monastic rules shaped spiritual, educational and economic life for over a millennium.

Augustine of Hippo (354–430)

Bishop of Hippo in North Africa, Augustine was the most influential theologian of Latin Christianity. His writings on grace, sin and the church shaped both Catholic and Protestant thought.

Muhammad & Early Islam (c. 570–632)

Muslims believe Muhammad was the final prophet, to whom God revealed the Quran through the angel Gabriel. He united much of Arabia under a new community (umma) before his death in 632.

Sunni–Shia Divide (632–680)

Disagreement over who should lead the Muslim community after Muhammad produced the main division in Islam. Shia Muslims hold that leadership belonged to Ali and his descendants; Sunni Muslims accept the historical caliphs.

Chan & Zen Buddhism (c. 6th–13th century)

Chan Buddhism developed in China with an emphasis on meditation and direct insight into one’s nature. Transmitted to Japan as Zen, it shaped monastic life and arts across East Asia.

Shinto (c. 6th–8th century onward)

Shinto is the veneration of kami, sacred powers of nature, ancestors and place, at shrines across Japan. Its myths were written down in the early 8th century, and for centuries it intertwined with Buddhism.

Shankara & Advaita Vedanta (c. 8th century)

Adi Shankara systematised Advaita (non-dual) Vedanta through commentaries on the Upanishads and related texts. Later tradition also credits him with organising Hindu monastic orders.

Bhakti Movement (c. 6th–17th century)

Bhakti, loving devotion to a personal god, spread from Tamil poet-saints across India. Often composed in vernacular languages, its poetry frequently questioned caste and priestly ritual.

Tibetan Buddhism (8th century onward)

Buddhism entered Tibet under royal patronage in the 7th–8th centuries, drawing on Indian tantric (Vajrayāna) traditions. Large monastic schools later became centres of both religious and political authority.

Sufism (8th century onward)

Sufism is the mystical dimension of Islam, seeking direct experience of God through love, remembrance and spiritual discipline. Sufi orders played a large role in spreading Islam across Africa and Asia.

East–West Schism (1054)

Long-growing differences between the Latin West and Greek East came to a head in 1054 with mutual excommunications in Constantinople. The rupture separated what became the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches.

Maimonides & Kabbalah (12th–13th century)

Medieval Jewish thought produced both rationalist philosophy, epitomised by Maimonides, and the mystical tradition of Kabbalah. Both remain central to Jewish learning.

Aquinas & Scholasticism (12th–13th century)

In the new universities of Europe, scholastic theologians used logic and recovered Aristotelian philosophy to systematise Christian doctrine. Thomas Aquinas’s synthesis became a cornerstone of Catholic theology.

Guru Nanak & Sikhism (1469–1708)

Sikhism began with Guru Nanak in the Punjab and developed under a line of ten Gurus. Sikhs believe in one formless God and emphasise devotion, honest work, service and equality.

Protestant Reformation (1517–1555)

Martin Luther’s challenge to indulgences grew into a movement that rejected papal authority and stressed scripture and faith. The Reformation split Western Christianity into Catholic and multiple Protestant churches.

Catholic Reformation (1545–1648)

The Catholic Church answered Protestantism with doctrinal definition, internal reform and new religious orders. Missionaries, especially Jesuits, carried Catholicism to the Americas, Africa and Asia.

Yoruba & African Diaspora Religions (16th century onward)

Yoruba religion of West Africa honours a supreme being and many orishas through offerings, possession, music and divination. Through the Atlantic slave trade it shaped new religions across the Americas.

Wars of Religion & Toleration (1598–1689)

After a century of confessional wars, European states moved haltingly toward legal coexistence of churches. Philosophers began to argue that the state should not coerce belief.

Great Awakenings & Methodism (1730s–1840s)

Waves of Protestant revival in Britain and North America emphasised personal conversion and emotional preaching. They gave rise to modern evangelicalism and spurred social reform movements.

Enlightenment & Church–State Separation (1730s–1905)

Enlightenment thinkers subjected religion to rational critique, and revolutions in America and France reshaped relations between church and state. Constitutional separation became a model for many modern states.

Haskalah & Modern Judaism (1760s–1880s)

Emancipation and the Enlightenment prompted Jews in Central Europe to rethink tradition, producing Reform, modern Orthodox and Conservative movements. Earlier, Hasidism had renewed Eastern European piety.

Latter Day Saint Movement (1830–1896)

Joseph Smith founded the Latter Day Saint movement in upstate New York during the Second Great Awakening. Adherents believe he restored the original church of Christ through new revelation and scripture.

Bábí & Baháʼí Faith (1844–1963)

The Baháʼí Faith emerged from the Bábí movement in 19th-century Iran. Baháʼís believe in the oneness of God, the unity of religions and the unity of humanity.

World’s Parliament of Religions (1893)

Held alongside the Chicago World’s Fair, the 1893 Parliament was the first major formal gathering of representatives of Eastern and Western religions. It is often regarded as the birth of the modern interfaith movement.

Pentecostalism (1901 onward)

Pentecostalism emphasises direct experience of the Holy Spirit, including speaking in tongues and healing. Born in early-20th-century America, it became one of the fastest-growing forms of Christianity, especially in the Global South.

Modern Islamic Reform & Revival (late 19th c. – 1979)

Muslim thinkers and movements responded to colonialism and modernisation in diverse ways, from reconciling Islam with modern science to calls for Islamic social and political order.

Second Vatican Council (1962–1965)

Pope John XXIII convened the Second Vatican Council to renew the Catholic Church’s engagement with the modern world. It reformed the liturgy and reshaped Catholic attitudes to other churches and religions.

New Religious Movements (1950s–1970s)

The mid-20th century saw a wave of new religious movements in the West and Asia, many drawing on Asian traditions or novel revelations. Scholars use the neutral term “new religious movements” rather than the pejorative “cults”.

Secularization & the “Nones” (1917–present)

Sociologists long predicted that modernisation would erode religion. Religious practice has declined sharply in some regions while remaining vigorous in others, and scholars now debate how secularization works.

Interfaith Dialogue (1986–2019)

Late-20th and early-21st-century religious leaders increasingly met in formal dialogue, issuing joint statements on peace and shared values.

Compiled from public sources; summaries for illustration