# History of Automobiles

> An interactive timeline of the history of automobiles: 50 milestones · 172 developments, from Pioneers to Electric & Digital, with the connections between them.

- Interactive version: https://timelinegraph.app/examples/automobiles
- Published on [Timeline Graph](https://timelinegraph.app/), a free diagonal timeline maker
- Sources: [Compiled from public sources; summaries for illustration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_automobile)

## Eras

- **Pioneers** (1769 to 1885): 6 items
- **Brass Era** (30 Jan 1886 to 25 Nov 1913): 14 items
- **Mass Production** (13 Dec 1921 to 1941): 6 items
- **Post-war Boom** (1950 to 13 Dec 1970): 8 items
- **Global & Japanese Era** (19 Jul 1972 to 13 Mar 2004): 8 items
- **Electric & Digital** (6 Feb 2008 to 7 Aug 2022): 8 items

## Kinds of connection

- Builds on
- Rivals / displaces

## Pioneers

### Cugnot steam carriage (1769–1771)

French military engineer Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot built a three-wheeled steam-powered "fardier" to haul artillery. It is widely regarded as the first full-scale self-propelled mechanical vehicle.

Topics: Powertrain, Design, steam, military

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fardier_%C3%A0_vapeur)

- Cugnot demonstrated a steam tractor in 1769, commissioned by the French Army to tow heavy cannon.
- Its single front wheel carried both the boiler and the two-cylinder engine, making it heavy and hard to steer.
- The fardier crawled at only a few kilometres per hour and had to stop frequently to rebuild steam pressure.
- The 1770–71 vehicle survives and is displayed at the Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris.

Later built on by: Trevithick road locomotives
Later challenged by: Système Panhard

### Trevithick road locomotives (1801–1803)

Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick applied compact high-pressure steam engines to road vehicles. His Puffing Devil and London Steam Carriage showed passenger steam travel was possible.

Topics: Powertrain, steam, high pressure

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puffing_Devil)

- On Christmas Eve 1801 the Puffing Devil carried several passengers up Camborne Hill in Cornwall.
- Trevithick used high-pressure steam rather than Watt-style low pressure, making the engine small enough for a road vehicle.
- His 1803 London Steam Carriage ran on city streets but found no investors and was dismantled.

Builds on: Cugnot steam carriage
Later built on by: Stanley Steamer, Red Flag Act

### Lenoir gas engine (1860–1863)

Belgian-French engineer Étienne Lenoir built the first commercially successful internal combustion engine, burning coal gas. He later fitted one to a cart, the Hippomobile.

Topics: Powertrain, internal combustion

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Lenoir)

- Lenoir patented a double-acting coal-gas engine in 1860; several hundred were sold to power workshops.
- With no compression stroke, the engine was very inefficient, turning only a few percent of its fuel into work.
- Around 1863 his Hippomobile made a slow trip from Paris to Joinville-le-Pont and back.

Later built on by: Otto four-stroke engine, Benz Patent-Motorwagen
Later challenged by: Otto four-stroke engine

### Red Flag Act (1865–1896)

Britain's Locomotive Act 1865 imposed strict speed limits on mechanical road vehicles and required a person to walk ahead of them. It is often blamed for slowing early British motoring.

Topics: Regulation, UK law, speed limit

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locomotive_Acts)

- The 1865 Act capped road locomotives at 4 mph in the country and 2 mph in towns.
- A person carrying a red flag had to walk 60 yards ahead of each vehicle to warn riders and horses.
- The Locomotives on Highways Act 1896 freed light motor cars and raised the limit to 14 mph.
- Motorists celebrated with the 1896 Emancipation Run to Brighton, still recreated as the London to Brighton Veteran Car Run.

Builds on: Trevithick road locomotives
Later built on by: Unsafe at Any Speed, Paris–Rouen & early races, 1973 oil crisis

### Otto four-stroke engine (1876)

Nicolaus Otto, working at Deutz with Eugen Langen, built the first practical four-stroke compressed-charge engine. The Otto cycle underpins nearly every petrol engine since.

Topics: Powertrain, Manufacturing, four-stroke, Deutz

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Otto)

- Otto’s 1876 engine compressed its fuel–air charge before ignition: intake, compression, power and exhaust.
- Deutz was granted German patent DRP 532 in 1877, giving it a lucrative lead in stationary engines.
- The patent was overturned in 1886 after Alphonse Beau de Rochas’s 1862 description of the cycle was found.
- Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach both worked at Deutz before leaving in 1882 to build smaller engines.

Later built on by: Daimler & Maybach engines, Benz Patent-Motorwagen
Builds on: Lenoir gas engine
Challenges: Lenoir gas engine
Later challenged by: Diesel engine

### Daimler & Maybach engines (1885–1890)

Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach developed a light, fast-running petrol engine in Cannstatt. They put it in a motorcycle, a carriage and boats, and founded Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft in 1890.

Topics: Powertrain, Business, high-speed engine, DMG

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottlieb_Daimler)

- Their 1885 "grandfather clock" engine ran at around 600 rpm, far faster than contemporary gas engines.
- The 1885 Reitwagen, a wooden two-wheeler with the new engine, is considered the first internal combustion motorcycle.
- In 1886 they fitted the engine to a converted horse carriage, producing a four-wheeled motor car.
- Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft was founded in 1890 and licensed its engines to French makers.

Builds on: Otto four-stroke engine
Later challenged by: Benz Patent-Motorwagen
Later built on by: Système Panhard, Mercedes 35 hp

## Brass Era

### Benz Patent-Motorwagen (1886–1888)

Karl Benz designed a three-wheeled vehicle built around its own petrol engine rather than adapting a carriage. It is generally recognised as the first true automobile.

Topics: Powertrain, Design, first car, Karl Benz

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benz_Patent-Motorwagen)

- Benz filed for German patent 37435, "a vehicle powered by a gas engine", on 29 January 1886.
- The car used a 954 cc single-cylinder four-stroke engine producing under one horsepower.
- Chassis, steering and engine were designed together as one machine, not bolted onto a horse carriage.
- In August 1888 Bertha Benz drove about 106 km from Mannheim to Pforzheim, the first long-distance car journey.

Builds on: Otto four-stroke engine, Lenoir gas engine
Challenges: Daimler & Maybach engines
Later built on by: Paris–Rouen & early races, Mercedes 35 hp
Later challenged by: First electric cars

### Pneumatic tyre (1888–1895)

John Boyd Dunlop developed a practical air-filled tyre for his son’s tricycle in Belfast. The Michelin brothers made it detachable and brought it to motor cars.

Topics: Design, Business, tyres, Dunlop, Michelin

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tire)

- Dunlop patented his pneumatic tyre in 1888, at first mainly for bicycles.
- In 1891 André and Édouard Michelin patented a detachable tyre that could be repaired at the roadside.
- Michelin’s L’Éclair ran on pneumatic tyres in the 1895 Paris–Bordeaux–Paris race, despite many punctures.

Later built on by: Citroën Traction Avant, Paris–Rouen & early races

### Système Panhard (1891)

French firm Panhard et Levassor, using Daimler-licensed engines, set the template of a front engine driving the rear wheels through a clutch and sliding-gear transmission. This layout dominated cars for decades.

Topics: Design, Powertrain, layout, France

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panhard)

- Panhard et Levassor placed the engine at the front driving the rear wheels, the classic "Système Panhard".
- Émile Levassor used a clutch and sliding-gear gearbox, a crude but effective ancestor of the manual transmission.
- The firm built cars under French rights to Daimler’s engine, showing how licensing spread the technology.

Challenges: Cugnot steam carriage
Builds on: Daimler & Maybach engines
Later built on by: Mercedes 35 hp, Ford Model T
Later challenged by: Citroën Traction Avant

### Diesel engine (1892–1897)

Rudolf Diesel patented an engine that ignites fuel purely by the heat of compression. After a working prototype at Augsburg in 1897 it became the engine of trucks, ships and, later, many cars.

Topics: Powertrain, compression ignition

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_engine)

- Diesel received a German patent for his rational heat engine in 1893 after filing in 1892.
- His 1897 Augsburg engine reached about 26% efficiency, far above steam engines of the day.
- The 1936 Mercedes-Benz 260 D was among the first series-production diesel passenger cars.

Challenges: Otto four-stroke engine
Later built on by: Dieselgate

### Paris–Rouen & early races (1894–1895)

The 1894 Paris–Rouen trial, organised by Le Petit Journal, is considered the first motoring competition. A year later Paris–Bordeaux–Paris became the first true motor race.

Topics: Racing, competition, France

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris%E2%80%93Rouen_(motor_competition))

- In July 1894 dozens of entrants set off on the 126 km run from Paris to Rouen, judged on safety and ease of handling.
- A de Dion steam tractor arrived first but was denied top prize because it needed a stoker; petrol cars shared the award.
- Émile Levassor drove a Panhard nearly the whole 1,178 km Paris–Bordeaux–Paris race in 1895, averaging about 24 km/h.

Builds on: Red Flag Act, Benz Patent-Motorwagen, Pneumatic tyre
Later challenged by: Stanley Steamer
Later built on by: Mercedes 35 hp, Indianapolis 500

### Stanley Steamer (1897–1924)

Twins Francis and Freelan Stanley built some of the most successful American steam cars. Smooth and fast, steamers eventually lost out to cheaper, quicker-starting petrol cars.

Topics: Powertrain, Racing, steam cars, speed record

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Motor_Carriage_Company)

- The Stanley twins built their first steam car in 1897 in Massachusetts and soon sold dozens.
- In 1906 Fred Marriott drove the Stanley Rocket to 127.66 mph at Ormond Beach, a land speed record.
- Long warm-up times and high prices left steam cars uncompetitive; Stanley production ended in the 1920s.

Builds on: Trevithick road locomotives
Challenges: Paris–Rouen & early races
Later built on by: Electric self-starter

### First electric cars (1899–1914)

Around 1900 battery-electric cars were quiet, clean and easy to start, and held a large share of the American market. Limited range and the arrival of cheap petrol cars pushed them into decline.

Topics: Electric, Powertrain, battery, hybrid

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_electric_vehicle)

- In 1899 Camille Jenatzy’s electric La Jamais Contente became the first road vehicle to exceed 100 km/h.
- Around 1900 electric cars made up roughly a third of automobiles on US roads, favoured for city driving.
- The 1900 Lohner-Porsche used electric hub motors; its 1901 Mixte added a petrol generator, an early hybrid.
- Detroit Electric, founded in 1907, sold cars to urban buyers into the 1920s before demand dwindled.

Later challenged by: Electric self-starter, Ford Model T
Challenges: Benz Patent-Motorwagen
Later built on by: Toyota Prius, ZEV mandate & GM EV1

### Mercedes 35 hp (1900–1901)

Designed by Wilhelm Maybach for dealer Emil Jellinek and named after his daughter, the Mercedes 35 hp abandoned carriage-like proportions. It is often called the first modern car.

Topics: Design, Racing, first modern car, Maybach

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes_35_hp)

- A long wheelbase, low centre of gravity and pressed-steel frame gave it stability unlike tall horseless carriages.
- Maybach’s honeycomb radiator cooled a 35 hp engine efficiently and set a lasting design pattern.
- The car dominated the 1901 Nice Week races, and "Mercedes" soon became DMG’s brand name.

Builds on: Daimler & Maybach engines, Benz Patent-Motorwagen, Système Panhard, Paris–Rouen & early races
Later built on by: Ford Model T

### Oldsmobile Curved Dash (1901–1907)

Ransom E. Olds produced the Curved Dash in quantity using a stationary assembly line and outside suppliers. It was the first car produced in volume in the United States.

Topics: Manufacturing, Business, volume production, Ransom Olds

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldsmobile_Curved_Dash)

- Olds used a stationary assembly line, with workers moving parts between stations, to boost output.
- About 425 were built in 1901 and some 2,500 in 1902, unprecedented volume for an American carmaker.
- Priced at $650, the light runabout was affordable to many middle-class buyers.

Later built on by: Moving assembly line, Ford Model T, General Motors

### General Motors (1908–1930s)

William C. Durant founded General Motors in 1908 as a holding company for Buick and soon added Oldsmobile and Cadillac. Under Alfred P. Sloan it pioneered brand ladders, consumer credit and annual model changes.

Topics: Business, Design, Durant, Sloan

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors)

- Durant incorporated GM on 16 September 1908 and quickly acquired Oldsmobile, Cadillac and others.
- In 1919 GM created GMAC to finance car purchases on instalment credit.
- Alfred Sloan’s "a car for every purse and purpose" arranged brands in a price ladder from Chevrolet to Cadillac.
- Yearly styling changes and choice helped GM overtake Ford as America’s largest carmaker by the early 1930s.

Builds on: Oldsmobile Curved Dash
Later challenged by: Ford Model T, Unsafe at Any Speed
Later built on by: Art and Colour Section

### Ford Model T (1908–1927)

Henry Ford’s Model T was a simple, rugged and repairable car built for ordinary buyers. Relentless production improvements cut its price and put America on wheels.

Topics: Manufacturing, Business, Henry Ford, Tin Lizzie

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Model_T)

- The Model T went on sale on 1 October 1908, with the touring car priced at around $850.
- Ford used vanadium steel and a high-clearance chassis to cope with rough rural roads.
- By the mid-1920s a Model T runabout cost about $260, a fraction of its launch price.
- More than 15 million were built by 1927, a production record that stood until the VW Beetle.

Challenges: First electric cars, General Motors
Builds on: Système Panhard, Mercedes 35 hp, Oldsmobile Curved Dash
Later built on by: Moving assembly line, Willys MB Jeep
Later challenged by: Volkswagen Beetle

### Indianapolis 500 (1911)

The first Indianapolis 500 was run on 30 May 1911 at the brick-paved Indianapolis Motor Speedway. Racing there became a proving ground for automotive technology.

Topics: Racing, Safety, Indy, motorsport

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1911_Indianapolis_500)

- Ray Harroun won the inaugural race in the Marmon Wasp at an average of about 74.6 mph.
- Harroun drove without a riding mechanic and used a rear-view mirror, an early use of the device on a car.
- The speedway was built in 1909 partly as a testing ground for the fast-growing Indiana car industry.

Builds on: Paris–Rouen & early races
Later built on by: Three-point seat belt, DARPA Grand Challenge

### Electric self-starter (1911–1912)

Charles Kettering of Delco developed a practical electric starter, introduced on the 1912 Cadillac. It removed the dangerous hand crank and one of the main advantages of electric cars.

Topics: Powertrain, Safety, Kettering, Cadillac

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_F._Kettering)

- Hand-cranking engines was strenuous and could break arms when the engine kicked back.
- The 1912 Cadillac was the first production car with Kettering’s electric starting, lighting and ignition system.
- Easy push-button starting erased a key selling point of electric cars, especially among urban drivers.

Challenges: First electric cars
Builds on: Stanley Steamer
Later built on by: Leaded petrol

### Moving assembly line (1913–1914)

At Highland Park, Michigan, Ford introduced a moving assembly line for complete Model T chassis. Paired with the $5 day, it defined twentieth-century mass production.

Topics: Manufacturing, Business, Highland Park, Fordism

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_line)

- In 1913 Ford began pulling chassis past stationary workers, inspired partly by meatpacking disassembly lines.
- Chassis assembly time fell from about 12.5 hours to roughly 1.5 hours.
- In January 1914 Ford doubled pay to $5 a day to cut turnover from the monotonous line work.
- The system depended on precisely interchangeable parts so that no hand fitting was needed.

Builds on: Oldsmobile Curved Dash, Ford Model T
Later built on by: Willys MB Jeep, Toyota Production System, US Interstate Highway System

## Mass Production

### Leaded petrol (1921–2021)

In 1921 GM researchers under Charles Kettering found that tetraethyl lead stopped engine knock, allowing higher compression. Leaded petrol spread worldwide before its health toll forced a century-long phase-out.

Topics: Powertrain, Regulation, tetraethyl lead, antiknock

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetraethyllead)

- Thomas Midgley found tetraethyl lead’s antiknock effect at GM in December 1921.
- Knock-free fuel allowed higher compression ratios and more powerful, efficient engines.
- GM and Standard Oil formed the Ethyl Corporation in 1924 to sell the additive.
- The US banned leaded petrol for road vehicles in 1996; Algeria’s last sales in 2021 ended its use in cars worldwide.

Builds on: Electric self-starter
Later built on by: Ford Mustang
Later challenged by: Clean Air Act & catalytic converter

### Art and Colour Section (1927–1958)

GM hired Harley Earl in 1927 to lead the industry’s first in-house styling department. Styling, clay models and concept cars turned appearance into a selling tool.

Topics: Design, Business, Harley Earl, styling

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harley_Earl)

- Earl’s first project, the 1927 LaSalle, was styled as a complete, harmonious design rather than engineered piecemeal.
- Earl popularised full-size clay modelling to shape bodies, a practice still used in studios.
- The 1938 Buick Y-Job is widely called the industry’s first concept car.
- The 1948 Cadillac introduced tailfins inspired by the P-38 Lightning fighter, starting a 1950s styling craze.

Builds on: General Motors
Later built on by: Ford Mustang, Google / Waymo self-driving
Later challenged by: Unsafe at Any Speed

### Autobahn (1932–1940s)

Germany opened the Cologne–Bonn road, a limited-access dual carriageway, in 1932. The Nazi regime then built the Reichsautobahn network as a showpiece programme.

Topics: Infrastructure, Regulation, motorway, Germany

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobahn)

- The Cologne–Bonn road opened in August 1932 as a crossing-free road reserved for motor vehicles.
- The first Reichsautobahn section, Frankfurt–Darmstadt, opened in 1935.
- More than 3,000 km were completed by the end of the 1930s, influencing highway planners abroad.

Later built on by: US Interstate Highway System, Volkswagen Beetle

### Citroën Traction Avant (1934–1957)

The Citroën Traction Avant combined front-wheel drive with a welded unitary steel body. Its cost nearly bankrupted Citroën, but the formula became the norm for mainstream cars.

Topics: Design, Manufacturing, front-wheel drive, monocoque

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citro%C3%ABn_Traction_Avant)

- It was one of the first mass-produced front-wheel-drive cars, giving a low floor and secure handling.
- Its unitary steel body replaced the separate chassis frame, saving weight and height.
- Development costs sent Citroën into bankruptcy in 1934; tyre maker Michelin took control.

Builds on: Pneumatic tyre
Challenges: Système Panhard
Later built on by: Volkswagen Beetle, Mini

### Volkswagen Beetle (1938–2003)

Designed by Ferdinand Porsche as a state-backed "people’s car", the Beetle only reached ordinary buyers after the Second World War. It became the best-selling single design of the twentieth century.

Topics: Design, Manufacturing, Business, people’s car, Porsche

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen_Beetle)

- The KdF-Wagen was launched in 1938 under a savings-stamp scheme, but almost no civilians received cars before the war.
- Its air-cooled rear-mounted flat-four was simple, robust and needed no radiator.
- British Army officer Ivan Hirst restarted Wolfsburg production in 1945, laying the base of Germany’s post-war auto industry.
- In 1972 the Beetle passed the Model T’s production total; the last of over 21.5 million left Puebla, Mexico, in 2003.

Challenges: Ford Model T
Builds on: Autobahn, Citroën Traction Avant
Later challenged by: Toyota Corolla, Mini

### Willys MB Jeep (1940–1945)

The US Army’s light four-wheel-drive reconnaissance vehicle was prototyped by Bantam and mass-produced by Willys and Ford. It became an icon of the war and the ancestor of civilian off-roaders.

Topics: Design, Manufacturing, 4x4, WWII

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willys_MB)

- American Bantam built the prototype in 1940 in about seven weeks to meet an Army specification.
- Willys and Ford together built roughly 640,000 during the Second World War.
- From 1945 the civilian CJ series carried the design into peacetime farming and recreation, founding the 4x4 market.

Builds on: Ford Model T, Moving assembly line
Later built on by: Chrysler rescue & minivan

## Post-war Boom

### Toyota Production System (1948–1975)

Taiichi Ohno and Eiji Toyoda developed a production system that made small batches efficiently with minimal inventory. Later called "lean production", it was copied worldwide.

Topics: Manufacturing, Business, lean, just-in-time

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota_Production_System)

- Eiji Toyoda studied Ford’s Rouge plant in 1950 and concluded mass production had to be adapted for Japan’s small market.
- Just-in-time delivery and kanban cards pulled parts only as they were needed, cutting inventory and waste.
- Jidoka let any worker stop the line on a defect, an idea rooted in Sakichi Toyoda’s self-stopping loom.
- MIT’s 1990 study "The Machine That Changed the World" popularised the system as lean production.

Builds on: Moving assembly line
Later built on by: Toyota Corolla, 1973 oil crisis, Tesla Model S, BYD

### US Interstate Highway System (1956–1992)

The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 funded a national network of limited-access highways. It reshaped American cities, suburbs, freight and travel around the car.

Topics: Infrastructure, Regulation, Eisenhower, highways

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System)

- President Eisenhower signed the Federal-Aid Highway Act on 29 June 1956, authorising about 41,000 miles of highway.
- Eisenhower cited his 1919 Army convoy and his view of Germany’s autobahns as inspiration.
- Fast highways fuelled suburban growth and long-distance trucking, cementing car dependence in the US.

Builds on: Moving assembly line, Autobahn
Later built on by: Tesla Model S

### Three-point seat belt (1959)

Volvo engineer Nils Bohlin designed the three-point lap-and-shoulder belt, fitted to Volvo cars from 1959. Volvo let other makers use the design freely, and it has saved over a million lives by many estimates.

Topics: Safety, Volvo, Nils Bohlin

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seat_belt)

- Bohlin’s V-shaped belt anchored at three points, restraining both upper body and pelvis with one hand motion.
- Volvo fitted it as standard in the PV544 and Amazon in Sweden in 1959.
- Volvo made the patent available to all carmakers rather than enforcing it exclusively.
- Victoria, Australia, made wearing seat belts compulsory in 1970, the first such law in the world.

Later built on by: ABS and airbags, Unsafe at Any Speed
Builds on: Indianapolis 500

### Mini (1959–2000)

Alec Issigonis designed the Mini for BMC after the 1956 Suez fuel crisis. Its transverse engine and front-wheel drive packed four seats into a tiny footprint.

Topics: Design, Issigonis, transverse engine

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mini)

- Mounting the engine sideways with the gearbox in the sump left about 80% of the floor for passengers and luggage.
- Petrol rationing after the 1956 Suez crisis prompted BMC to commission a small, frugal car.
- A Mini Cooper S won the 1964 Monte Carlo Rally, proving small front-drive cars could be fast.

Builds on: Citroën Traction Avant
Challenges: Volkswagen Beetle
Later built on by: 1973 oil crisis, Honda Civic & CVCC, Chrysler rescue & minivan

### Ford Mustang (1964)

Ford unveiled the Mustang at the New York World’s Fair in April 1964, creating the "pony car" segment. Based on cheap Falcon mechanicals, it sold in huge numbers to young buyers.

Topics: Design, Business, pony car, Iacocca

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Mustang)

- Launched on 17 April 1964, the Mustang reportedly drew about 22,000 orders on its first day.
- It reused the compact Falcon’s platform, letting Ford offer sporty styling at a low price.
- One million Mustangs were sold within about two years, a triumph credited to Lee Iacocca.

Builds on: Leaded petrol, Art and Colour Section
Later built on by: Chrysler rescue & minivan

### Unsafe at Any Speed (1965–1970)

Ralph Nader’s 1965 book accused carmakers of neglecting safety, notably in the Chevrolet Corvair. The outcry led to the first US federal vehicle safety law and, in 1970, NHTSA.

Topics: Safety, Regulation, Ralph Nader, NHTSA

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsafe_at_Any_Speed)

- Nader argued that car design, not just driver error, caused needless deaths and injuries.
- GM hired private investigators to dig into Nader’s life; its president apologised before Congress in 1966.
- The National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1966 created federal motor vehicle safety standards.
- The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration was established in 1970 to enforce them.

Builds on: Red Flag Act, Three-point seat belt
Challenges: Art and Colour Section, General Motors
Later built on by: ABS and airbags
Later challenged by: Tesla Model S

### Toyota Corolla (1966–present)

Toyota launched the Corolla in 1966 as an affordable family car for Japan’s growing middle class. It became the best-selling car nameplate in history.

Topics: Business, Manufacturing, best-seller, Japan

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota_Corolla)

- The first Corolla went on sale in Japan in November 1966 with a 1.1-litre engine.
- Reliable and economical, it led Toyota’s export push into North America and beyond.
- Cumulative sales passed 50 million by 2021, the most of any single nameplate.

Challenges: Volkswagen Beetle
Builds on: Toyota Production System
Later built on by: 1973 oil crisis

### Clean Air Act & catalytic converter (1966–1975)

California’s smog problem drove the first tailpipe standards, and the US Clean Air Act of 1970 required drastic cuts in car emissions. Catalytic converters, needing unleaded fuel, arrived on 1975 models.

Topics: Regulation, Powertrain, emissions, EPA, CARB

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States))

- California set its own vehicle emission standards in 1966 and created the California Air Resources Board in 1967.
- The 1970 Clean Air Act demanded roughly 90% cuts in key pollutants, enforced by the new EPA.
- Most 1975 US cars carried catalytic converters, which lead would poison, forcing unleaded petrol.

Challenges: Leaded petrol
Later built on by: ZEV mandate & GM EV1, Honda Civic & CVCC, CAN bus & on-board diagnostics, Combustion phase-out laws
Later challenged by: Honda Civic & CVCC

## Global & Japanese Era

### Honda Civic & CVCC (1972–1975)

Honda’s compact, front-wheel-drive Civic arrived just before the 1973 oil crisis. Its CVCC engine met the new US emissions rules without a catalytic converter.

Topics: Powertrain, Business, Honda, clean engine

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda_Civic)

- The Civic launched in 1972 as a small transverse-engined hatchback in the Mini mould.
- The stratified-charge CVCC engine passed US 1975 emission limits without a catalyst.
- Its fuel economy made it a hit with US buyers after petrol prices soared.

Builds on: Mini, Clean Air Act & catalytic converter
Challenges: Clean Air Act & catalytic converter
Later built on by: 1973 oil crisis

### 1973 oil crisis (1973–1979)

The Arab oil embargo of October 1973 quadrupled oil prices and caused fuel queues across the West. Buyers turned to small, efficient cars, and governments imposed fuel-economy rules.

Topics: Business, Regulation, OPEC, fuel economy

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973_oil_crisis)

- Arab OPEC members embargoed the US and others in October 1973; oil prices rose about fourfold.
- The US imposed a national 55 mph speed limit in 1974 to save fuel.
- The 1975 Energy Policy and Conservation Act created CAFE standards, targeting 27.5 mpg for cars by 1985.
- Japanese small cars gained a lasting share of the US market as Detroit’s large cars struggled.

Builds on: Red Flag Act, Toyota Production System, Mini, Toyota Corolla, Honda Civic & CVCC
Later built on by: Chrysler rescue & minivan, Toyota Prius, Detroit bankruptcies

### ABS and airbags (1978–1998)

Electronics entered safety systems when Bosch’s electronic anti-lock brakes appeared on the Mercedes S-Class in 1978. A driver’s airbag followed in 1981, and both became near-universal.

Topics: Safety, Autonomy, Bosch, Mercedes-Benz

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-lock_braking_system)

- Bosch’s electronic ABS, offered on the 1978 Mercedes S-Class, let drivers steer while braking hard.
- Mercedes offered a driver airbag with belt pretensioner on the S-Class in 1981.
- US law required front airbags for both front seats in all new passenger cars from the 1998 model year.

Builds on: Three-point seat belt, Unsafe at Any Speed
Later built on by: CAN bus & on-board diagnostics, Tesla Model S

### Chrysler rescue & minivan (1979–1984)

Near bankruptcy, Chrysler won US federal loan guarantees in 1979 under Lee Iacocca. Its 1984 Dodge Caravan and Plymouth Voyager created the minivan segment and restored its fortunes.

Topics: Business, Design, Iacocca, bailout

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_minivans)

- The Chrysler Corporation Loan Guarantee Act of 1979 backed $1.5 billion in loans.
- Launched in late 1983, the front-drive Caravan and Voyager offered van space with car-like driving.
- Strong K-car sales let Chrysler repay its guaranteed loans in 1983, seven years early.

Builds on: Willys MB Jeep, Mini, Ford Mustang, 1973 oil crisis
Later built on by: Detroit bankruptcies

### CAN bus & on-board diagnostics (1986–1996)

Bosch introduced the Controller Area Network to let a car’s growing number of computers share data over one bus. US rules made standardised OBD-II diagnostics mandatory from 1996.

Topics: Autonomy, Regulation, electronics, Bosch

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAN_bus)

- Bosch presented the CAN protocol in 1986; the 1991 Mercedes W140 S-Class was the first production car to use it.
- Networked control units let engine, brakes and body electronics coordinate, laying groundwork for driver assistance.
- OBD-II became mandatory on US cars from the 1996 model year to monitor emissions-related faults.

Later built on by: Dieselgate, Tesla Model S
Builds on: Clean Air Act & catalytic converter, ABS and airbags

### ZEV mandate & GM EV1 (1990–2003)

California’s 1990 Zero Emission Vehicle mandate pushed carmakers to build battery cars. GM’s EV1 was the first purpose-built modern electric car from a major maker, but GM recalled and crushed most of them.

Topics: Electric, Regulation, CARB, ZEV

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_EV1)

- In 1990 CARB required that a growing share of cars sold in California emit nothing from the tailpipe.
- GM leased about 1,100 EV1s from 1996, using lead-acid and later nickel-metal-hydride batteries.
- After the mandate was weakened, GM reclaimed the cars and crushed most, as told in "Who Killed the Electric Car?" (2006).

Builds on: First electric cars, Clean Air Act & catalytic converter
Later challenged by: Tesla Roadster
Later built on by: Combustion phase-out laws, Nissan Leaf

### Toyota Prius (1997–present)

The Prius, launched in Japan in December 1997, was the first mass-produced hybrid car. Its power-split hybrid system combined a petrol engine with electric motors and regenerative braking.

Topics: Powertrain, Electric, hybrid, Toyota

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota_Prius)

- Sold in Japan from December 1997 and worldwide from 2000, the Prius made hybrids mainstream.
- Its power-split device blends engine and motor power, recapturing braking energy into a battery.
- Toyota’s cumulative hybrid sales passed 10 million in early 2017.

Builds on: First electric cars, 1973 oil crisis
Later built on by: BYD
Later challenged by: Combustion phase-out laws, Tesla Roadster

### DARPA Grand Challenge (2004–2007)

The US defence research agency offered prize money for driverless vehicles to cross the Mojave Desert. The contests jump-started modern self-driving research and its talent pool.

Topics: Autonomy, Racing, self-driving, robotics

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA_Grand_Challenge)

- In the 2004 race no vehicle finished the 150-mile course; the best managed about 7.3 miles.
- In 2005 Stanford’s "Stanley", led by Sebastian Thrun, won as five vehicles completed the course.
- The 2007 Urban Challenge, won by Carnegie Mellon’s "Boss", tested driving in traffic with other cars.

Later built on by: Google / Waymo self-driving, Tesla Model S
Builds on: Indianapolis 500

## Electric & Digital

### Tesla Roadster (2008–2012)

Tesla Motors, founded in 2003, launched the Roadster in 2008 on a Lotus Elise-derived chassis. It proved lithium-ion cells could give an electric car range and performance.

Topics: Electric, Business, lithium-ion, Tesla

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_Roadster_(first_generation))

- Its pack used about 6,800 small cylindrical lithium-ion cells of the kind made for laptops.
- An EPA-rated range of around 244 miles was far beyond earlier production EVs.
- Lotus assembled the gliders in Britain; about 2,450 Roadsters were sold worldwide.

Challenges: ZEV mandate & GM EV1, Toyota Prius
Later built on by: Tesla Model S
Later challenged by: Nissan Leaf

### BYD (2003–present)

Battery maker BYD entered car-making in 2003 by buying Qinchuan Automobile. Vertically integrated from cells to vehicles, it became the world’s largest maker of electrified cars.

Topics: Electric, Business, Manufacturing, China, batteries

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BYD_Auto)

- Wang Chuanfu’s rechargeable-battery firm BYD bought Xi’an Qinchuan Automobile in 2003 to form BYD Auto.
- The 2008 F3DM was among the first mass-produced plug-in hybrid cars; Berkshire Hathaway invested the same year.
- BYD’s 2020 Blade battery used lithium iron phosphate cells packed directly into the pack structure.
- In March 2022 BYD stopped making purely petrol-powered cars.
- In the last quarter of 2023 BYD sold more battery-electric cars than Tesla.

Builds on: Toyota Production System, Toyota Prius
Later challenged by: Nissan Leaf
Later built on by: Combustion phase-out laws

### Detroit bankruptcies (2008–2010)

The 2008 financial crisis and collapsing sales pushed GM and Chrysler into government-backed bankruptcies in 2009. Federal loans also funded fuel-efficient and electric vehicle programmes.

Topics: Business, Regulation, GM, Chrysler, financial crisis

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%E2%80%932010_automotive_industry_crisis)

- Chrysler filed for Chapter 11 on 30 April 2009 and GM on 1 June 2009, both emerging within weeks.
- Fiat took a stake in the new Chrysler, beginning the path to Fiat Chrysler and later Stellantis.
- The DOE’s Advanced Technology Vehicles loan programme lent Tesla $465 million in 2010.
- The 2009 "Cash for Clunkers" programme paid owners to trade old cars for more efficient ones.

Builds on: 1973 oil crisis, Chrysler rescue & minivan
Later built on by: Tesla Model S, Nissan Leaf

### Google / Waymo self-driving (2009–present)

Google started a self-driving car project in 2009 with veterans of the DARPA challenges. Spun out as Waymo in 2016, it launched commercial driverless ride-hailing.

Topics: Autonomy, Business, robotaxi, lidar

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waymo)

- Google’s project began in 2009 under Sebastian Thrun, with a team drawn from DARPA challenge veterans.
- In 2015 its steering-wheel-free Firefly carried a blind passenger on public roads in Austin without a safety driver.
- Waymo One launched in Phoenix in 2018 and began fully driverless public rides in 2020.
- Driverless service expanded to San Francisco and Los Angeles, giving hundreds of thousands of paid rides a week by 2025.

Builds on: DARPA Grand Challenge, Art and Colour Section
Later challenged by: Tesla Model S

### Nissan Leaf (2010–present)

Launched in December 2010, the Nissan Leaf was the first modern mass-market battery-electric hatchback. It was the world’s best-selling EV for several years.

Topics: Electric, Manufacturing, mass-market EV, Nissan

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nissan_Leaf)

- The Leaf went on sale in Japan and the US in December 2010 as a five-seat family hatchback.
- It was named 2011 World Car of the Year.
- Global Leaf sales passed 500,000 in 2020.

Builds on: ZEV mandate & GM EV1, Detroit bankruptcies
Challenges: Tesla Roadster, BYD
Later challenged by: Tesla Model S

### Tesla Model S (2012–2017)

Tesla’s Model S sedan, launched in June 2012, combined long range with high performance and a large touchscreen. Its Supercharger network and software updates redefined expectations for cars.

Topics: Electric, Autonomy, Infrastructure, Supercharger, OTA

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_Model_S)

- Deliveries began in June 2012 from Tesla’s Fremont factory, the former GM–Toyota NUMMI plant.
- Tesla opened its first Supercharger fast-charging stations in September 2012.
- Over-the-air software updates added features after sale, treating the car like a computer.
- Autopilot driver assistance was enabled by a software update in October 2015.
- The cheaper Model 3 followed in 2017, and the Model Y was the world’s best-selling car of 2023.

Builds on: Toyota Production System, US Interstate Highway System, ABS and airbags, CAN bus & on-board diagnostics, DARPA Grand Challenge, Tesla Roadster, Detroit bankruptcies
Challenges: Unsafe at Any Speed, Nissan Leaf, Google / Waymo self-driving
Later built on by: Combustion phase-out laws

### Dieselgate (2015–2017)

In September 2015 the US EPA found that Volkswagen diesels used software to cheat emissions tests. The scandal cost VW tens of billions and accelerated its shift to electric cars.

Topics: Regulation, Powertrain, Volkswagen, emissions scandal

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen_emissions_scandal)

- Road tests by West Virginia University for the ICCT revealed NOx emissions far above lab results.
- On 18 September 2015 the EPA accused VW of using a defeat device; about 11 million cars worldwide were affected.
- VW pled guilty in 2017 and pivoted to a major battery-electric programme built on its MEB platform.

Builds on: CAN bus & on-board diagnostics, Diesel engine
Later built on by: Combustion phase-out laws

### Combustion phase-out laws (2022–2035)

California and the European Union adopted rules that effectively end sales of new petrol and diesel cars by 2035. Norway showed how quickly incentives could shift a market to EVs.

Topics: Regulation, Electric, 2035, zero emission

Further reading: [Read more](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-out_of_fossil_fuel_vehicles)

- California’s Advanced Clean Cars II rule, adopted in 2022, requires all new cars sold from 2035 to be zero-emission.
- An EU regulation adopted in 2023 requires a 100% CO2 cut for new cars from 2035.
- Thanks to tax incentives, battery-electric cars made up about 89% of new car sales in Norway in 2024.

Builds on: Clean Air Act & catalytic converter, ZEV mandate & GM EV1, Tesla Model S, Dieselgate, BYD
Challenges: Toyota Prius